Note to new readers: On most Sundays I post an image of the seafloor, typically some type of map but once in a while a photograph. The landscape under the ocean is as complex and beautiful as on land and we're really only beginning to explore it. Enjoy!
The Arctic is an ocean surrounded almost completely by landmasses (interestingly, the Antarctic is the opposite – a landmass surrounded by an ocean). The Arctic Ocean basin is rimmed by a narrow continental shelf and land on the Greenland, Canadian, and Alaskan side and rimmed by a broad, shallow continental shelf on the Eurasian (Norway and Russia) side. The only opening of the deep part of the ocean basin is between Greenland and the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard connecting it to the North Atlantic.This narrow passage, called the Fram Strait, opened completely approximately 20 million years ago as a result of seafloor spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Note the gash in the map above in the seafloor making its way north from Iceland, through the Fram Strait, and into the Arctic basin as the Gakkel Ridge, the slowest known spreading center on Earth.
The prominent submarine ridge that parallels the Gakkel Ridge and crosses the north pole, The Lomonosov Ridge, is thought to have once been part of the Eurasian continent. Rifting along the Gakkel spreading center caused the Lomonosov Ridge to drift to its current location over 10s of millions of years. Although recent research expeditions have successfully retrieved sediment cores from the ridge, which are valuable for their paleo-environmental records, the geologic origin of the ridge itself is still the subject of study.
And the motivation for that study is not purely academic. The Lomonosov Ridge is the subject of a contentious maritime territorial dispute.
In August 2007 Russia planted their flag on the ocean bottom 4,200 m (14,000 ft) under the north pole to demonstrate their Arctic dominance to the international community. Similar to planting the U.S. flag on the moon, this event was entirely symbolic with no actual international legal standing with respect to territorial boundaries.
The Arctic Ocean is bounded by the landmasses of five nations – Russia, Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and the U.S. – which are involved in increasingly frequent discussions about who has rights to various areas. Why such an interest in securing Arctic maritime territories?
One reason is that the multi-decade trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic has resulted in new shipping lanes and the potential for resource extraction previously hindered by too much sea ice for too much of the year. The existing framework that informs nations what territory beyond their coastlines they can claim is established by the The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982. The continental shelf (that greenish-blue area representing shallower water in the top image), which is considered part of a nation's marine territory, is defined by the UN as:... the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margin's outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal state’s baseline, whichever is greater. State’s continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends.
I looked into this story a few years ago but was motivated to revisit it this week when I saw this report come out a couple days ago. What is and what is not considered the continental shelf and the geologic origin of the Lomonosov Ridge is the center of this debate. The two countries at opposite ends of the ridge, Russia and Canada, have:
... each argued that the ridge was an extension of their country's continental shelf, allowing them to exploit any mineral resources there.
Both countries claim to have scientific evidence that proves at least some part of this submarine mountain range is their continental shelf and, thus, their sovereign territory. Let's take a look at some maps. The first one below shows the bathymetry (seafloor topography) for the Canadian/Greenland side of the Lomonosov Ridge with some simple annotation. There is a 800 m (2,600 ft) deep and 35 km (20 mi) wide 'saddle' between the Canadian-Greenland continental shelf and the ridge. To me, the ridge is not an extension of the continental shelf.The Russian side is even less convincing (see below). In terms of this physiography there's no way the Lomonosov Ridge would be considered an extension of the Siberian shelf.But these maps depict the modern tectonic configuration and geography, what about where the ridge used to be? That's right. The territorial disputes have gone beyond the relatively simple rules of so many miles from a nation's coastline or continental shelf. The nations involved are claiming that the geologic origin of the ridge – that is, where it came from before being rifted away – is an important criterion to decide sovereignty:
[A joint Geological Survey of Canada and Danish] study describes various geological traits – including magnetic anomalies, crust characteristics and volcanic features – that appear common to both the ridge and adjacent parts of Canada and Greenland. “Plate reconstructions that require the Lomonosov Ridge to be attached to the North American and Greenland plates are consistent with our data,” says a conference summary of the team’s conclusions.
This juxtaposition of geology and sovereignty is absolutely fascinating. The position of a landmass in the geologic past – a continent's paleogeography – could be used to claim rights to that land. Think about it. The most lucrative jobs in geology would be doing paleogeographic reconstructions to help your home nation obtain/keep territory (a form of tectonic nationalism) or as a hired gun to help rogue nation-states improve their standing in the world with the acquisition of a well-positioned accreted terrane.
Tongue-in-cheek aside, the notion that Canada/Greenland and Russia are using arguments for geologic origin of the Lomonosov Ridge to claim rights to it is an interesting development. The latest report mentions that the parties involved are seeking a ruling from the UN soon. Stay tuned.
Top image: GEBCO world map / www.gebco.net/
Basemap for bottom two maps created in GeoMapApp (an excellent freeware mapping tool)
To learn more about sovereignty in the Arctic, check out this legal review.
The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by landmasses and has a unique geographical makeup. It is rimmed by a narrow continental shelf and land on the Greenland, Canadian, and Alaskan side and a broad, shallow continental shelf on the Eurasian side. The only opening to the deep part of the ocean basin is the Fram Strait, located between Greenland and the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard.
The Arctic's prominent features include the Gakkel Ridge, the slowest known spreading center on Earth, and the Lomonosov Ridge, which is thought to have once been part of the Eurasian continent. The geologic origin of the Lomonosov Ridge is still being studied, and recent research expeditions have retrieved sediment cores from the ridge to study its paleo-environmental records.
The Lomonosov Ridge has become the subject of a contentious maritime territorial dispute. In 2007, Russia planted their flag on the ocean bottom 4,200 meters under the North Pole, symbolizing their Arctic dominance. However, this act does not hold any international legal standing regarding territorial boundaries.
The Arctic Ocean is bounded by Russia, Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and the U.S., who are involved in discussions about their rights to different areas. One reason for the interest in securing Arctic maritime territories is the multi-decade trend of declining sea ice, which has opened up new shipping lanes and potential for resource extraction.
The existing framework that governs territorial claims beyond coastlines is established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The continental shelf, which is considered part of a nation's marine territory, is defined by the UN as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margin's outer edge or 200 nautical miles from the coastal state's baseline, whichever is greater.
The dispute over the Lomonosov Ridge revolves around what is considered the continental shelf and the geologic origin of the ridge. Both Russia and Canada claim scientific evidence that proves the ridge is an extension of their continental shelf. Maps depicting the bathymetry and physiography of the ridge suggest that it is not an extension of either country's continental shelf.
The territorial disputes have gone beyond the rules of distance from coastlines or continental shelves, with nations claiming the geologic origin of the ridge as an important criterion for deciding sovereignty. A joint Geological Survey of Canada and Danish study describes geological traits that appear common to both the ridge and adjacent parts of Canada and Greenland, suggesting a geological connection.
The relationship between geology and sovereignty in this dispute is fascinating, as the position of a landmass in the geologic past could be used to claim rights to it. The parties involved are currently seeking a ruling from the UN on the matter.
1. Geopolitical issue
2. Who's claiming the territory?
3. Summarize the dispute
4. What do you think? How should the dispute be settles (other than war)?
1. Geopolitical Issue: The dispute over the Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean is a significant geopolitical issue. It involves several nations with territorial claims in the region and revolves around the potential resources and shipping routes that have become accessible due to the declining sea ice.
2. Claimants: The main countries involved in the dispute are Russia and Canada. Other countries with potential interests in the Arctic, such as Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and the U.S., may also be affected by the outcome.
3. Summary of the Dispute: The dispute centers around the geologic origin of the Lomonosov Ridge and whether it qualifies as an extension of a particular country's continental shelf, thus granting ownership rights over the territory and its resources. Russia and Canada both claim scientific evidence supporting their respective claims, and they have submitted data to support their arguments. The parties involved are seeking a ruling from the United Nations to settle the dispute.
4. Opinion on Settlement: As an AI, I don't hold personal opinions. However, for the dispute to be settled peacefully, it would require negotiation, cooperation, and adherence to international law. The United Nations, through its processes and legal frameworks, could play a crucial role in facilitating a fair settlement based on scientific evidence, historical claims, and the principles of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Mediation, compromise, and multilateral agreements may be necessary to resolve the dispute in a manner that ensures the interests of all parties are taken into consideration. Peaceful resolutions through diplomacy and international law should always be favored over armed conflict or unilateral actions.
Rephrase them in 2nd grade.
1. Big Problem: The argument over who owns a special place in the Arctic Ocean is a very important issue for many countries.
2. People claiming the land: Russia and Canada are the main countries saying that the land belongs to them. Other countries like Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and the U.S. might also have an interest in it.
3. What's the problem?: The argument is about a long underwater mountain called the Lomonosov Ridge. Russia and Canada both think it belongs to them and want to use the resources there. They are asking the United Nations to help settle the dispute.
4. What I think: I can't have thoughts or feelings, but to solve the problem without fighting, everyone will need to talk nicely and follow the rules. The United Nations can help make fair decisions based on evidence and history. It's important to find a peaceful solution where everyone is happy and gets what they need.
Rephrase it in 5th grade
1. Important Issue: The dispute over who owns a particular area in the Arctic Ocean is a significant and serious matter for many countries.
2. Countries Involved: Russia and Canada are the main countries making claims to the territory. Additionally, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and the U.S. have interests in the area as well.
3. Summary of the Dispute: The disagreement focuses on a long underwater mountain called the Lomonosov Ridge. Russia and Canada both believe it belongs to them and want to use its resources. They have asked the United Nations to help settle the argument fairly.
4. Opinion on Settlement: While I don't have personal opinions, finding a solution that doesn't involve fighting is very important. Open and respectful discussions are necessary to determine the rightful owner based on evidence and historical records. The United Nations can play a crucial role in making fair decisions and mediating the dispute. It's crucial to find a peaceful resolution where everyone's needs and interests are considered.