How did the army retaliate against Constantinople
The army retaliated against Constantinople through a series of military campaigns and sieges. Here are some key examples:
1. Siege of Constantinople (674-678): The first major retaliation occurred when the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Caliph Muawiyah I, launched a siege against Constantinople in 674. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV successfully defended the city, using advanced defensive fortifications such as the "Greek Fire" flamethrower.
2. Siege of Constantinople (717-718): During this second siege, the Umayyad Caliphate, now led by Caliph Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik, attempted to capture Constantinople once again. The Byzantines, led by Emperor Leo III, resisted the siege for over a year. The Umayyad forces were eventually defeated due to a combination of Byzantine resistance, strategic mobility, and naval superiority.
3. Battle of Manzikert (1071): This battle was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks. Although not a direct retaliation against Constantinople, it weakened the Byzantine military and paved the way for the later attack on the city during the Fourth Crusade. The Byzantines, led by Emperor Romanos IV, suffered a crushing defeat, resulting in territorial losses and weakened defenses for Constantinople.
4. Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): The Fourth Crusade, initially launched to retake the Holy Land, took a detour and ended up attacking and capturing Constantinople. The Crusaders, primarily composed of Western European knights, breached the city's defenses and sacked it in 1204. This was a major blow to the Byzantine Empire, as it led to the establishment of the Latin Empire, a short-lived crusader state, and the division of Byzantine territories among various Crusader factions.
Overall, the army's retaliations against Constantinople were met with varying levels of success, with some sieges repelled and others resulting in significant losses and damage to the city.